"Benares: Views of a Holy City"

For many Benares is the epitome of a Hindu pilgrimage centre: it is a city whose religious life focuses largely on a sacred river – the Ganges. The Sanskrit term for such a place is tirtha and originally refers to a ford, i.e. a place where one has access to water and can cross to the other side. In many respects Benares is a place of crossings: here, one meets the river goddess Ganga who traverses the three worlds (sky, earth and underworld); here is the ideal place for dying, as whoever dies here immediately gains salvation; it is also a place to perform ancestral rituals; and for every ordinary pilgrim who takes a ritual bath it is a place of auspicious encounters with the other world. However, Benares – also known as Kashi („City of Light") or Varanasi – is neither exclusively nor the only pilgrimage centre of Hinduism. It is true that the city is primarily associated with Shiva: here, according to the Kashikhanda - an eulogical text from the 14th century - the Lingam, the phallus shaped emblem of Shiva, is omnipresent. The most important temple in the city is that of Shiva as Vishvanath, the „Lord of the Universe": the Golden Temple. But there are also many shrines dedicated to other gods and goddesses, along with mosques, Jain temples, churches and Buddhist temples testifying to the rich and multiplex tradition of this city.

The extraordinary importance of Benares among the Indian pilgrimage towns and cities is linked to its special geographical position. The city of today with more than a million inhabitants is situated on the western bank of the Ganges, which at this point flows in a light curve in a north-eastern direction. This means that a person on the river front is facing east, or south-east, i.e. the direction of the rising sun. Due to the course of the river the western side with the embankment is situated on a steep slope, from where the water is easily accessible even during the dry winter season. The eastern side, on the contrary, is a slip-off slope which is flooded during the monsoon, whereby the construction of any kind of buildings is made impossible. The view to the other side of the river is therefore always a view from the urban environment towards the open, „empty" landscape. Favoured by this position the banks of Benares have become a unique landscape in the course of the city's history, marked by a rich sacred architecture. There were times of destruction, such as during periods of Muslim rule (since the 12th century). As a result there are virtually no buildings older than 250 years today. Nevertheless there is evidence that the river embankment has always been the centre of urban life. Many public activities take place at the bathing ghats, the banks which during the last two centuries have been increasingly transformed into stone terraces with stair constructions (Exhibition Hall A). Here is the place for bathing and washing, for body exercises, for visiting temples and celebrating rituals. Ascetics meditate in the sun, vendors sell pilgrimage souvenirs, and boatmen look for customers. The exhibition shows images which document the view of this sacred city from various different angles. The more general question: How do different people in Benares perceive space - be it ordinary space or sacred space - is a major focus of the group of researchers at the South Asia Institute in Heidelberg. It was only logical in this context to take a closer look at the ways in which space is represented in pictures and diagrams. The following types of representations can be distinguished.

Picturesque Views 

European views of the city of Benares in the form of reproductions have been known since 1775. Those were initially based on local works of art and craft, until in 1781 the city on the river was visited by William Hodges who came as a member of Warren Hastings' retinue. William Hodges had been Captain James Cook's (1728-80) „draughtsman" during the latter's second (1772-75) and third (1776-80) global voyage of discovery. Like no other artist Hodges recognized the artistic value of the city's sacred architecture.

Inspired by Hodges' views of India published in 1785-88 in large format, the two most famous artists visiting India during the 18th century were Thomas Daniell (1749-1837) and William Daniell (1769-1837) who passed through Benares. After returning to England the Daniells published the largest views of India in the volumes called „Oriental Scenery", which influenced the European view of the subcontinent in the decades to follow. Many of the ink drawings made in situ remained unpublished drafts, until one of the artists reworked them into one or several oil paintings at the beginning of the 19th century. The 19th century saw a number of artists – mainly amateurs – most of whom became famous through contemporary publications, though primarily of a literary kind. Among those were (giving the time of visit before the bio-data): Elizabeth Charlotte Canning (1856; 1817- 1861), James Prinsep (1820-1830; 1799-1840), Mortimer Menpes (around 1903; 1860-1938), Edward Lear (1873;1812-88), William Simpson (1862; 1823 - 1900), George Landseer (1861; 1829-78), Holger H. Jerichau (unknown, 1861-1900), James Moffat (before or around 1804; 1775-1815), Constance Frederica Gordon Cumming (1869; 1837 - 1924), and Charles D'Oyly (1839-40; 1781-1845).

After 1850 Benares became increasingly the object of professional photographers, such as Dr. John Murray (around 1858, 1809-98), Felice Beato (1858; c.1825-c.1907), Samuel Bourne (around 1864; 1834-1912), Louis Rousselet (1868; 1845-1929), Lala Din Dayal (around 1880; 1844-1905), Madho Ram Prasad (worked in Benares/Ramnagar, biodata unknown, active 1895-1910). In the beginning, photographs could only be reproduced photomechanically, i.e. from the original negatives. Therefore it was common practice to produce wood engravings which could be used for mechanical printing. This reproduction technique was incomparably cheaper than the reproduction of the paper- or glass negatives. But from the end of the 19th century onwards even photographs could be mechanically printed by using a lithographic procedure.

Panoramas

The word "panorama" – an artificial expression derived from Greek pan = 'all' and hórama 'to see' – has probably been invented by Robert Barker, who painted a picture of London in 1788, which (as the artist claimed) came close to reality "in size as well as in all other respects". The painting measuring 1479 square meters depicted the city in a full circular view of 360°, so that the spectator felt "like in a dream", or "like flying". Within a decade this form of art, which was regarded as a technical-scientific innovation, spread all over Europe. The first building constructed for such a circular view or panorama was built in 1793. In the following hundred years it was mainly paintings of battle scenes which were displayed. Then came dioramas, pleoramas, cycloramas, myrioramas and cineramas. Sometimes long prints were sold in the pavillons, which could be rolled up or folded as leporellos and thus stored easily.

By the end of the 19th century views were published in books as wood engravings, steel engravings or photographs which covered a section of 180° or only 120° but were also called panorama. An example of this is the 10 meter view of the northern bank of the river Elbe in Hamburg. Following this tradition similar views of the Ganges were depicted in Benares in the late 19th and early 20th century, which we call panorama today.

The first view of the Ganges embankment in "Banares" was published in 1786 by Joseph Tieffenthaler in Berlin. This is neither a circular view nor a semi-circular view, but a section of the river front between Cet Singh Ghat and Pancaganga Ghat. Possibly a rough sketch or simply reports served as a model, which were visualized by a draftsman in Berlin. However, it is significant that the bend of the river was included, and due to this also the bank on the opposite side is depicted.

The panorama of the embankment from the Museum of Cultures in Basel (Exhibition Hall B), which probably dates back to around 1860, depicts the buildings along the river in quite a differentiated and "realistic" manner, documenting exactly the areas not endowed with stairs.

The situation is different in the case of the other versions which were made around 1900. They were printed as well as hand-coloured in Allahabad and Benares, and named "All Benares" or "A Complete View of the Benares City" (ca. 1910). They modify the tradition of pictorial maps (see below) from the 18th century and attempt to be both a panorama, i.e. a scroll, and a map. Here magnificent buildings are lined up, and the whole embankment appears to be covered by stairs. However, behind the river front one can see, in a heavily reduced fashion, the hinterland extending up to 20 km. The horizon is marked by a row of trees below the blue sky, and the resting points on the Pancakroshi pilgrimage route are marked by buildings and inscriptions. Between the river and the horizon one can see stylized temples, houses, wells, and trees. The "Complete View of the Benares City" alone shows a total of 81 objects identified by text: these are primarily not historical sights but "civilizatory" institutions (like schools, memorials) of recent origin.

The panorama photograph by Stanislaw Klimek depicts not one single moment, but is compiled of 108 photos, which were taken on November 21, 2001 within 90 minutes. After every 150 meters the perspective of the picture is different: this had to be adjusted on the computer screen. The reflections on the water could be blurred with the help of graphic software, this was, however, not possible in the case of the clouds: the whole sky was "retouched " and re-constructed. A keen observer will notice that one or the other tree in the background appears twice.

Pictorial maps

The pictorial maps which came up around 1800 or shortly before (see in Exhibition Hall C the objects from Delhi and London) integrate the view (the picture) of the embankment with the area "map", which included procession routes. This tradition is followed by Kailasanath Sukul in his "mirror" of Kashi (Kashidarpana, 1876), in which one can recognize a reduced panorama of the embankment. Up to the 1970's re-editions of this pictorial map were repeatedly published with minor variations (for example Sri Pancakroshi Tirthadarsana, Exhibition Hall C).

The pictorial maps in upright format following the tradition of the "mirror" of Kashi were replaced around 1970 by the pictorial maps in wide format designated as "Map of Kashi". The long panorama scrolls were apparently too bulky and the pictorial maps too complex. In these smaller versions the panorama shrinks down to 22 cm and lists only the major sites along the Ganges. The hinterland is now for the first time depicted in the spirit of topographical maps showing streets, whose crossings are labelled accordingly. None of the pictorial maps or panoramas provide means for orientation in ordinary space of practice and experience. They serve mainly to reassure one's knowledge of imagined space. They are symbols which combine knowledge (based on scriptures) and experience (based on pilgrimage practice), symbols which represent both the sacred site as well as the whole universe. The more recent pictorial maps are less abstract than a yantra (diagram), and yet they have a similarly iconic character. Like a mirror these "pictures" will be posted on the wall, as a souvenir which reminds the pilgrim of the place and enriches his and her imagination.

Topographical maps

The British colonial administrator, engineer and artist James Prinsep (1799-1840) published "Benares, Illustrated by a series of drawings" (1831/33), which contained not only an impressive collection of views of the city but also the first map of Benares which was based on a topographic survey (Exhibition Hall D). For this purpose Prinsep, who worked as assay master of the mint, collected census data on the city's population during his early years in Benares. He took detailed measurements of the urban space and noted down many observations of its social and ritual usage. The map, drawn up in 1822, locates with meticulous care wells, markets, police and custom posts, as well as Hindu temples (91 are listed by name!), mosques, Muslim tombs, and even sati memorial stones (which commemorate self-immolations of widows). Moreover, the map contains valuable information on local festivals and pilgrimage procession routes. One can sense the deep affection for the city which must have been a driving force for its production. Prinsep called it "my never ending map", "a work of labour undertaken as a work of pleasure". The whole publication was a result of his personal initiative and was financed with his own funds. Prinsep never recovered his expenses for this costly volume through sales. Only in the second half of the 19th century were the first maps of Benares commissioned by the colonial administration. In terms of surveying techniques they were certainly superior to Prinsep's map, but the information they contained was less varied. Though the map named "Cantonments of Sikrol and Pandypoor, also the Civil Station & City of Benares" of 1867 also locates wells, temples and Muslim shrines, it does not include markets, festival or ritual practices. Later topographic maps like the one surveyed in 1928/29 focus on information concerning the infrastructure, e.g. power supply and telephone lines, sewerage, lamp posts, letter boxes, latrines and hydrants.